Sex differences in prenatal and neonatal life

The sex differences on neonatal mortality, estimated considering race and birth weight, have been known since the last century and they are negatively associated with gestational age. Notably, the male babies have major mortality and the worst postnatal outcomes presenting a higher incidence of prematurity and congenital diseases
Mothers of male babies have a higher rate of gestational diabetes mellitus, fetal macrosomia, and caesarean delivery and preterm births with a higher overall mortality rate.
Interestingly, prenatal drug exposure seems to affect differently male and female fetuses. For example, following maternal betamethasone for positive effects on survival in preterm neonates seems to be beneficial effect only male but this is not univocal datum. Vice versa, postnatal steroids seem to improve pulmonary outcomes more in females than in males. Additionally, maternal drug assumption can modify the infant microbiota. In particular, anti-asthmatic therapy lowered Lactobacilli in male while Bacteroidacæ are elevated in female.  Post-hoc analysis on the use of indomethacin in preterm neonates to prevent IVH suggest a beneficial only in male neonates. Neonatal administration of caffeine produces sex dimorphic alteration in blood metabolome. Neonatal abstinence syndrome due to prenatal opioid exposure has a higher frequency and severity in the male population, conversely female infants have more benzodiazepine deficiency symptoms.
Interestingly, growing evidence shows that boys and girls respond differently to maternal nutrition, and maternal breastmilk composition differs based on fetal sex Additionally, maternal drug assumption can modify the infant microbiota. In particular, anti-asthmatic therapy lowered Lactobacilli in male while Bacteroidacæ were elevated in females.  
Relevantly sex and gender differences are also observed in prenatal e neonatal programming, a concept, which highlights as certain events that occur during pregnancy and neonatal life may cause permanent effects that may change health trajectories across the lifespan. Some authors suggest that male embryos and fetuses are more sensible versus specific programming influences than female offspring. The early environmental life experience in utero and in the neonatal life is a major factor in shaping later life disease risk-including susceptibility to develop obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, neurological and psychiatric diseases.
This Collection aims to improve the knowledge and underline the importance of sex-gender impact at the beginning of life. Eligible articles may include review, epidemiological, basic, clinical, and/or translational research articles. Topics include, but are not limited to, fetal and neonatal health, fetal and neonatal programming, genetics and epigenetics, nutrition, environmental factors, pregnancy-related diseases (e.g., pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes), mechanisms, biomarkers, metabolomics and proteomics, therapies and drug abuse.